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What Protists Are Most Closely Related To Animals

Written By Saturday, May 14, 2022 Add Comment Edit

Eukaryotic organisms that are neither animals, plants nor fungi

Protist

Temporal range:

Paleoproterozoic[a] – Nowadays

Pha.

Proterozoic

Archean

Had'n

Protist collage 2.jpg
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Groups included

Supergroups[ane] and typical phyla

  • Archaeplastida (in part)
    • Rhodophyta (ruby algae)
    • Glaucophyta
  • SAR
    • Stramenopiles (brown algae, diatoms, oomycetes, ...)
    • Alveolata
      • Apicomplexa
      • Ciliophora
      • Dinoflagellata
    • Rhizaria
      • Cercozoa
      • Foraminifera
      • Radiolaria
  • Excavata
    • Euglenozoa
    • Percolozoa
    • Metamonada
  • Amoebozoa
  • Hacrobia
  • Hemimastigophora
  • Apusozoa
  • Opisthokonta (in office)
    • Choanozoa

Many others;
classification varies

Cladistically included but traditionally excluded taxa
  • Animalia
  • Fungi
  • Plantae

A protist () is whatever eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells contain a jail cell nucleus) that is non an animal, institute, or mucus. While it is likely that protists share a mutual ancestor (the terminal eukaryotic common ancestor),[2] the exclusion of other eukaryotes means that protists exercise not form a natural grouping, or clade.[a] Therefore, some protists may be more than closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists; still, like the groups algae, invertebrates, and protozoans, the biological category protist is used for convenience. Others classify any unicellular eukaryotic microorganism as a protist.[3] The study of protists is termed protistology.[4]

History [edit]

The nomenclature of a third kingdom separate from animals and plants was first proposed by John Hogg in 1860 as the kingdom Protoctista; in 1866 Ernst Haeckel also proposed a third kingdom Protista as "the kingdom of primitive forms".[5] Originally these too included prokaryotes, but with time[ when? ] these were removed to a quaternary kingdom Monera.[b]

In the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, Protista was divers as eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues", and the 5th kingdom Fungi was established.[6] [7] [c] In the v-kingdom system of Lynn Margulis, the term protist is reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more inclusive kingdom Protoctista (or protoctists) included certain large multicellular eukaryotes, such equally kelp, cherry-red algae, and slime molds.[x] Some apply the term protist interchangeably with Margulis'southward protoctist, to encompass both single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including those that grade specialized tissues merely do non fit into any of the other traditional kingdoms.[11]

Description [edit]

Besides their relatively elementary levels of arrangement, protists practice not necessarily have much in mutual.[12] When used, the term "protists" is now considered to mean a paraphyletic aggregation of similar-appearing but diverse taxa (biological groups); these taxa do not have an sectional mutual ancestor beyond beingness equanimous of eukaryotes, and have different life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures.[13] [14]

Examples of protists include:[15]

  • Amoebas (including nucleariids and Foraminifera);
  • choanaflagellates; ciliates;
  • Diatoms;
  • Dinoflagellates;
  • Giardia;
  • Plasmodium (which causes malaria);
  • Oomycetes (including Phytophthora, the cause of the Great Dearth of Ireland); and
  • slime molds.

These examples are unicellular, although oomycetes tin can join to class filaments, and slime molds tin can aggregate into a tissue-like mass.

In cladistic systems (classifications based on common ancestry), there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, as both terms refer to a paraphyletic group that spans the unabridged eukaryotic branch of the tree of life. In cladistic nomenclature, the contents of Protista are mostly distributed among various supergroups: examples include the

  • SAR supergroup (of stramenopiles or heterokonts, alveolates, and Rhizaria);
  • Archaeplastida (or Plantae sensu lato);
  • Excavata (which is generally unicellular flagellates); and
  • Opisthokonta (which commonly includes unicellular flagellates, but as well animals and fungi).

"Protista", "Protoctista", and "Protozoa" are therefore considered obsolete. However, the term "protist" continues to be used informally as a catch-all term for eukaryotic organisms that are not inside other traditional kingdoms. For case, the give-and-take "protist pathogen" may exist used to denote any affliction-causing organism that is not plant, animal, fungal, prokaryotic, viral, or subviral.[16]

Subdivisions [edit]

The term Protista was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms such every bit:[5]

Protozoa
Protozoans are unicellular "creature-like" (heterotrophic, and sometimes parasitic) organisms that are further sub-divided based on characteristics such every bit motility, such as the (flagellated) Flagellata, the (ciliated) Ciliophora, the (phagocytic) amoeba, and the (spore-forming) Sporozoa.
Protophyta
Protophyta are "establish-like" (autotrophic) organisms that are composed more often than not of unicellular algae. The dinoflagellates, diatoms and Euglena-like flagellates are photosynthetic protists.
Mold
Molds generally refer to fungi; but slime molds and water molds are "fungus-similar" (saprophytic) protists, although some are pathogens. Two separate types of slime molds be, the cellular and acellular forms.

Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, accept been considered to exist both protozoa and algae or fungi (e.g., slime molds and flagellated algae), and names for these have been published nether either or both of the ICN and the ICZN.[17] [xviii] Conflicts, such as these – for example the dual-nomenclature of Euglenids and Dinobryons, which are mixotrophic – is an example of why the kingdom Protista was adopted.

These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced past classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness amongst organisms). Molecular analyses in mod taxonomy take been used to redistribute onetime members of this group into diverse and sometimes distantly related phyla. For instance, the water molds are at present considered to be closely related to photosynthetic organisms such equally Brown algae and Diatoms, the slime molds are grouped mainly under Amoebozoa, and the Amoebozoa itself includes simply a subset of the "Amoeba" grouping, and pregnant number of erstwhile "Amoeboid" genera are distributed among Rhizarians and other Phyla.

Notwithstanding, the older terms are withal used as breezy names to draw the morphology and environmental of diverse protists. For example, the term protozoa is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that do not grade filaments.

Classification [edit]

Historical classifications [edit]

Among the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera (eastward.g., Vorticella, Chaos, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus)[nineteen] [20] were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. G. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin.[21] The first groups used to allocate microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria.[22] In 1818, the High german naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word Protozoa to refer to organisms such as ciliates and corals.[23] [five] Later on the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this grouping was modified in 1848 past Carl von Siebold to include but animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae.[24] The formal taxonomic category Protoctista was first proposed in the early on 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as primitive unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista equally a "4th kingdom of nature", in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals.[25] [5] The kingdom of minerals was subsequently removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists (Protista), defined as a "kingdom of archaic forms".[26] [27]

In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg's label, arguing that Haeckel's term Protista included anucleated microbes such equally bacteria, which the term "Protoctista" (literally meaning "showtime established beings") did not. In contrast, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such as diatoms, greenish algae and fungi.[28] This classification was the basis for Whittaker's later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life.[viii] The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the split up kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a grouping of eukaryotic microorganisms.[6] These five kingdoms remained the accustomed classification until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the belatedly 20th century, when it became apparent that neither protists nor monera were single groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups).[29]

Mod classifications [edit]

Phylogenetic and symbiogenetic tree of living organisms, showing the origins of eukaryotes

Systematists today do non care for Protista equally a formal taxon, merely the term "protist" is nonetheless commonly used for convenience in two ways.[30] The most popular contemporary definition is a phylogenetic 1, that identifies a paraphyletic group:[31] a protist is whatsoever eukaryote that is not an animal, (land) plant, or (truthful) mucus; this definition[32] excludes many unicellular groups, like the Microsporidia (fungi), many Chytridiomycetes (fungi), and yeasts (fungi), and also a non-unicellular group included in Protista in the by, the Myxozoa (creature).[33] Some systematists[ who? ] judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and utilise Protista in this sense equally a formal taxon (as found in some secondary textbooks, for pedagogical purpose).[ citation needed ]

The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular,[30] that either exist every bit contained cells, or if they occur in colonies, practice not show differentiation into tissues (just vegetative cell differentiation may occur restricted to sexual reproduction, alternate vegetative morphology, and quiescent or resistant stages, such as cysts);[34] this definition excludes many chocolate-brown, multicellular red and green algae, which may have tissues.

The taxonomy of protists is withal irresolute. Newer classifications attempt to present monophyletic groups based on morphological (especially ultrastructural),[35] [36] [37] biochemical (chemotaxonomy)[38] [39] and Deoxyribonucleic acid sequence (molecular enquiry) information.[twoscore] [41] However, in that location are sometimes discordances between molecular and morphological investigations; these can exist categorized as 2 types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence, ambiguous species) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (east.1000. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-bike stages).[42]

Considering the protists equally a whole are paraphyletic, new systems oftentimes split up upward or abandon the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as divide lines of eukaryotes. The contempo scheme by Adl et al. (2005)[34] does not recognize formal ranks (phylum, course, etc.) and instead treats groups equally clades of phylogenetically related organisms. This is intended to make the classification more stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the main groups of protists, which may be treated every bit phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper correct.[43] Many are idea to be monophyletic, though there is withal uncertainty. For instance, the Excavata are probably not monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably merely monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded.[44]

In 2015 a Higher Level Classification of all Living Organisms was arrived at by consensus with many authors including Cavalier-Smith. This classification proposes two superkingdoms and seven kingdoms. The superkingdoms are those of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The Prokaryotes include two kingdoms of Bacteria and Archaea; the Eukaryotes include five kingdoms of Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The scheme retains xiv taxonomic ranks. Eukaryotic unicellular organisms are referred to as protists.[45]

Metabolism [edit]

Diet can vary co-ordinate to the type of protist. Most eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, merely the pigments were lost in some groups.[ vague ] Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy, osmotrophy, saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic. Some protists that do not take / lost chloroplasts/mitochondria take entered into endosymbiontic relationship with other leaner/algae to supplant the missing functionality. For example, Paramecium bursaria and Paulinella have captured a green alga (Zoochlorella) and a cyanobacterium respectively that act as replacements for chloroplast. Meanwhile, a protist, Mixotricha paradoxa that has lost its mitochondria uses endosymbiontic bacteria as mitochondria and ectosymbiontic hair-similar bacteria (Treponema spirochetes) for locomotion.

Many protists are flagellate, for case, and filter feeding can take identify where flagellates find prey. Other protists can engulf leaner and other food particles, by extending their jail cell membrane effectually them to grade a nutrient vacuole and digesting them internally in a procedure termed phagocytosis.

Nutritional types in protist metabolism
Nutritional type Source of energy Source of carbon Examples
 Photoautotrophs  Sunlight  Organic compounds or carbon fixation  Near algae
 Chemoheterotrophs  Organic compounds  Organic compounds  Apicomplexa, Trypanosomes or Amoebae

For most important cellular structures and functions of beast and plants, it can be found a heritage among protists.[46]

Reproduction [edit]

Some protists reproduce sexually using gametes, while others reproduce asexually by binary fission.

Some species, for example Plasmodium falciparum, have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually.[47] However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between different strains of Plasmodium in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species.[48]

Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years agone.[49] The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread among extant eukaryotes, it seemed unlikely until recently, that sexual activity could exist a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A main reason for this view was that sexual practice appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had the adequacy for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For instance, the common intestinal parasite Giardia lamblia was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, G. lamblia was recently found to take a core ready of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present amongst sexual eukaryotes.[fifty] These results suggested that K. lamblia is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, straight evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of sexual practice, was too found in M. lamblia.[51]

The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus Leishmania accept been shown to exist capable of a sexual wheel in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.[52]

Trichomonas vaginalis, a parasitic protist, is not known to undergo meiosis, but when Malik et al.[53] tested for 29 genes that office in meiosis, they found 27 to be nowadays, including eight of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings advise that T. vaginalis may exist capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were too present in Thou. lamblia, information technology appears that most of these meiotic genes were likely nowadays in a common ancestor of T. vaginalis and G. lamblia. These two species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent among eukaryotes, leading Malik et al.[53] to advise that these meiotic genes were likely present in a mutual ancestor of all eukaryotes.

Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was nowadays in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.[54]

This view was further supported by a report of amoebae by Lahr et al.[55] Amoeba have generally been regarded as asexual protists. However, these authors describe evidence that most amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual, and that the majority of asexual groups likely arose recently and independently. Early researchers (east.g., Calkins) have interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules complimentary in the cytoplasm) in amoeboid organisms as sexual reproduction.[56]

Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental weather, but tend to reproduce sexually nether stressful conditions, such every bit starvation or estrus shock.[57] Oxidative stress, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species leading to DNA damage, also appears to be an of import gene in the induction of sex in protists.[57]

Some commonly found protist pathogens such equally Toxoplasma gondii are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a wide variety of animals – which act equally secondary or intermediate host – but can undergo sexual reproduction only in the master or definitive host (for example: felids such every bit domestic cats in this case).[58] [59] [60]

Environmental [edit]

Biomass by life form.jpg

Free-living protists occupy almost whatever environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such as algae, are photosynthetic and are vital primary producers in ecosystems, specially in the sea as part of the plankton. Protists make up a large portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial environments.[61]

Other protists include pathogenic species, such as the kinetoplastid Trypanosoma brucei, which causes sleeping sickness, and species of the apicomplexan Plasmodium, which cause malaria.

Parasitism: role as pathogens [edit]

Some protists are meaning parasites of animals (e.g.; five species of the parasitic genus Plasmodium cause malaria in humans and many others cause like diseases in other vertebrates), plants[62] [63] (the oomycete Phytophthora infestans causes belatedly blight in potatoes)[64] or fifty-fifty of other protists.[65] [66] Protist pathogens share many metabolic pathways with their eukaryotic hosts. This makes therapeutic target development extremely hard – a drug that harms a protist parasite is also likely to impairment its beast/plant host. A more than thorough understanding of protist biology may permit these diseases to be treated more efficiently. For instance, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast just essential to behave out of import functions other than photosynthesis) present in apicomplexans provides an attractive target for treating diseases caused by dangerous pathogens such as plasmodium.

Recent papers take proposed the use of viruses to care for infections caused past protozoa.[67] [68]

Researchers from the Agricultural Research Service are taking advantage of protists as pathogens to control red imported fire emmet (Solenopsis invicta) populations in Argentina. Spore-producing protists such as Kneallhazia solenopsae (recognized as a sister clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom now)[69] tin can reduce ruby fire ant populations past 53–100%.[70] Researchers take too been able to infect phorid fly parasitoids of the ant with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that can spread the pathogenic protist between red fire emmet colonies.[71]

Fossil record [edit]

Many protists have neither hard parts nor resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown. Examples of such groups include the apicomplexans,[72] most ciliates,[73] some green algae (the Klebsormidiales),[74] choanoflagellates,[75] oomycetes,[76] brownish algae,[77] yellow-dark-green algae,[78] Excavata (e.g., euglenids).[79] Some of these have been found preserved in amber (fossilized tree resin) or under unusual conditions (east.chiliad., Paleoleishmania, a kinetoplastid).

Others are relatively common in the fossil tape,[fourscore] as the diatoms,[81] gilt algae,[82] haptophytes (coccoliths),[83] silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates,[84] green algae,[85] carmine algae,[86] heliozoans, radiolarians,[87] foraminiferans,[88] ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans).[89] Some are fifty-fifty used equally paleoecological indicators to reconstruct ancient environments.

More than probable eukaryote fossils begin to appear at about 1.8 billion years agone, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of likely algal protists.[90] Some other possible representative of early fossil eukaryotes are the Gabonionta.

Run into likewise [edit]

  • Evolution of sexual reproduction
  • Marine protists
  • Protist locomotion
  • Protistology

Footnotes [edit]

  1. ^ a b The first eukaryotes were "neither plants, animals, nor fungi", hence as defined, the category protist would include the concluding eukaryotic common ancestor.
  2. ^ Monera eventually became the two domains Bacteria and Archaea.[5]
  3. ^ In the original iv-kingdom model proposed in 1959, Protista included all unicellular microorganisms such as leaner. Herbert Copeland proposed split kingdoms, Mychota for prokaryotes and Protoctista for eukaryotes (including fungi) that were neither plants nor animals. Copeland'south distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells was somewhen critical in Whittaker proposing a last five-kingdom organization, even though he resisted it for over a decade.[8] [9]

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Bibliography [edit]

General [edit]

  • Haeckel, E. Das Protistenreich. Leipzig, 1878.
  • Hausmann, K., N. Hulsmann, R. Radek. Protistology. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchshandlung, Stuttgart, 2003.
  • Margulis, L., J.O. Corliss, M. Melkonian, D.J. Chapman. Handbook of Protoctista. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Boston, 1990.
  • Margulis, L., K.Five. Schwartz. Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth, tertiary ed. New York: West.H. Freeman, 1998.
  • Margulis, L., L. Olendzenski, H.I. McKhann. Illustrated Glossary of the Protoctista, 1993.
  • Margulis, L., M.J. Chapman. Kingdoms and Domains: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth. Amsterdam: Academic Press/Elsevier, 2009.
  • Schaechter, M. Eukaryotic microbes. Amsterdam, Academic Press, 2012.

Physiology, ecology and paleontology [edit]

  • Foissner, W.; D.L. Hawksworth. Protist Diversity and Geographical Distribution. Dordrecht: Springer, 2009
  • Fontaneto, D. Biogeography of Microscopic Organisms. Is Everything Small Everywhere? Cambridge Academy Press, Cambridge, 2011.
  • Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: Jail cell physiology sourcebook : essentials of membrane biophysics. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
  • Moore, R. C., and other editors. Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology. Protista, office B (vol. 1 [ permanent dead link ] , Charophyta, vol. 2, Chrysomonadida, Coccolithophorida, Charophyta, Diatomacea & Pyrrhophyta), function C (Sarcodina, Chiefly "Thecamoebians" and Foraminiferida) and function D [ permanent dead link ] (Chiefly Radiolaria and Tintinnina). Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society of America; & Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press.

External links [edit]

  • Tree of Life: Eukaryotes
  • A java applet for exploring the new higher level classification of eukaryotes
  • Plankton Chronicles – Protists – Cells in the Sea – video
  • Holt, Jack R. and Carlos A. Iudica. (2013). Diversity of Life. http://comenius.susqu.edu/biol/202/Taxa.htm. Last modified: 11/eighteen/13.
  • Tsukii, Y. (1996). Protist Data Server (database of protist images). Laboratory of Biology, Hosei University.[1]. Updated: March 22, 2016.

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist

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